Improving the energy efficiency of housing and civil engineering depends largely on how much fossil fuel we waste on heating, cooling, electric lighting, and other human needs during building operation. The results of calculations of the energy savings that a passive solar energy utilization system can provide for these purposes are presented. Unlike active systems, such as photovoltaic batteries or solar collectors for heating and hot solar water supply, such systems do not require engineering equipment, maintenance and are an element of the building itself, are part of its volume-planning and structural solution. The simplest of such systems is the Tromba wall. From the point of view of capital expenditures for its construction, it is attractive. It is a “solar fireplace”, the efficiency of which was used in ancient Rome, Fig. 1. The article presents the results of the work carried out by the Department of Architectural and Construction Design and Environmental Physics (ACD&EP) within the framework of master’s theses and postgraduate students’ works on rapid justification of the feasibility of Tromba wall application already at the decision-making stage. Studies have shown that Trombe walls are only effective in one room. There is a need to study their efficiency for the whole building and to calculate the energy savings for winter gardens, greenhouses, and atriums, which have been shown to provide large savings on heating and cooling costs.

1. A set of rules. SP 50.13330.2024. Thermal protection of buildings. Updated version [Teplovaya zashchita zdaniy. Obnovlennaya versiya] / SNiP 23–02–2003.
2. Bryzgalin, V.V. Thermal balance of the Trombe wall in the climate of central Russia [Teplovoy balans steny Tromba v klimate sredney polosy Rossii] // Housing construction, 2018, # 6, pp. 1–4.
3. Gagarin, V.G., Kozlov, V.V., Lushin, K.I. The speed of air movement in the air layer of a hinged facade system with natural ventilation [Skorost’ dvizheniya vozdukha v vozdushnoy prosloyke navesnoy fasadnoy sistemy s yestestvennoy ventilyatsiyey] // Housing construction, 2013, # 10, pp. 14–17.
4. Solovyov, A.K. Solar Energy Use for Premises Heating on Spring and Autumn Periods in Southern Aries of Russia // Light & Engineering, 2023, Vol. 31, # 2, pp. 6–11.
5. Solovyov, A.K., Ruipu Bi, Phuong Nguen Thi Khanh. Preliminary Assessment of the Trombe Walls in Buildings with passive Use of Solar Energy // Light & Engineering, 2021, # 5, pp. 16–23.
6. Bryzgalin, V. V., Solovyov, A.K. The use of passive solar heating systems as an element of a passive house [Ispol’zovaniye passivnykh sistem solnechnogo otopleniya kak elementa passivnogo doma] // Bulletin of MGSU, 2018, # 4 (115), pp. 472–482.
7. Kotlov, K.V. Passive solar systems for heat supply of buildings in the climatic conditions of the Republic of Mari El on the example of the “Trombe collector wall” [Passivnyye solnechnyye sistemy teplosnabzheniya zdaniy v klimaticheskikh usloviyakh Respubliki Mariy El na primere “steny kollektora Tromba”] // Izvestiya KazGASU, 2009, # 2 (12), pp. 201–205.
8. A set of rules: SP (EN 113790:2008) “Energy efficiency of buildings. Calculation of heat energy consumption for heating, cooling, ventilation and hot water supply” / Moscow, 2013.
9. Solovyov, A.K. Passive houses and energy efficiency of their architectural and structural elements [Passivnyye doma i energoeffektivnost’ ikh arkhitekturnykh i konstruktivnykh elementov] // Industrial and Civil Engineering, 2016, # 4, pp. 46–53.
10. Solovyov, A.K. Economy of energy at the operation of buildings and passive systems of use of solar energy [Ekonomiya energii pri ekspluatatsii zdaniy i passivnyye sistemy ispol’zovaniya solnechnoy energii] // Construction and technological safety, 2018, # 10 (62), pp. 179–189.

Light is a key factor that enables people to see and evaluate objects, shapes, and colours. There are a significant number of industrial accidents worldwide due to inadequate lighting. Light contributes to the creation of normal working conditions. At the same time, the proper organization of industrial lighting is an integral part of human working conditions. Proper workplace lighting design protects human vision and the nervous system and ensures safety in the workplace. It should be noted that labour productivity and product quality directly depend on adequate lighting. The use of daylight in industrial buildings is a key strategy for reducing energy consumption, improving energy efficiency, and improving the quality of the environment. This can be achieved through the proper design of various translucent structures, which allow for control over the amount of daylight entering the premises. When operating industrial buildings, the cost of electricity for electrical lighting is one of the most important issues. At the same time, electricity consumption can be significantly reduced through the use of daylight, which in turn makes it possible to increase labour productivity. On the other hand, the large amount of glazing in industrial buildings and the lack of properly designed daylighting increase energy consumption costs associated with the need to heat and cool spaces at different times of the year. Thus, the proper design of lighting systems in industrial buildings is a key aspect that, in turn, makes it possible to reduce electricity consumption.

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The article analyses key aspects of the light insolation mode, such as the effect of sunlight on the temperature regime and illumination of window systems. The importance of the light insolation mode in the design of energy-efficient windows and translucent enclosures is considered.
The role of the light insolation mode in the selection of energy characteristics of window systems to improve the energy efficiency of buildings is determined. Translucent enclosures are studied to improve the energy efficiency of buildings through window systems. Some modern approaches to reducing heat gain through translucent window structures are summarized.
The characteristics of double-glazed windows with various properties, such as the level of sunlight transmission and heat transfer coefficient, which directly affect the efficiency of energy saving, are considered. The behaviour of sunlight and its interaction with window structures are highlighted. A numerical analysis of the thermal efficiency of external vertical enclosures of buildings is carried out.
A method for graphic-analytical assessment of the light-insolation mode is formulated, including computer simulations that allow predicting illumination and thermal conditions. The data obtained as a result of thermal imaging surveys help to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed design solutions. A method for modelling types of window systems and other translucent structures in a non-stationary heat transfer mode is proposed.
As a result of the research, mathematical dependencies were established to identify the heterogeneity of the thermal field in vulnerable parts of the translucent enclosure. This determines the direction of rational design of buildings taking into account vulnerable areas of both traditional and new structures, as well as during the energy audit of facades.
Real data on the illumination and thermal conditions of window systems obtained as a result of an energy audit for non-stationary heat transfer, as well as with the help of thermal imaging surveys and the use of a software package, allow us to evaluate the energy efficiency of the proposed design solutions for window systems.
The prerequisites have been created for the development of a theoretical method for physical and mathematical modelling of temperature fields in translucent building envelopes under various non-stationary thermal exposure conditions in regions with a predominantly warm climate.

1. Set of Rules: SP 426.1325800.2020 Translucent facade structures of buildings and structures. Design rules / Ministry of Construction and Housing and Communal Services, Moscow, Standartinform, 2019.
2. Standard: GOST 23166–2021 Translucent window and balcony enclosing structures. General specifications / Standartinform, 2021.
3.Tabunshchikov, Yu.A., Brodach, M.M., Shilkin, N.V. Energy-efficient buildings [Energoeffektivnyye zdaniya] / Moscow, AVOK-PRESS, 2015,193 p.
4. Izotov, A. Yu., Prykina, L.V. Energy saving and increasing energy efficiency at all stages of the life cycle of real estate objects during the implementation of a development project [Energosberezheniye i povysheniye energoeffektivnosti na vsekh etapakh zhiznennogo tsikla ob”yektov nedvizhimosti pri realizatsii developerskogo proyekta] // Economy and Entrepreneurship, 2017. No. 3–2 (80–2), pp. 892–896.
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6. Sakhasheva, D.A., Tazhigulov, A.A., Toregeldin, M.M. Energy-efficient houses [Energoeffektivnyye doma] // Paradigm, 2021, # 4, pp. 57–62.
7. Sheina, S.G., Fedyaeva, P.V., Chernikova, A.A. Application of world experience in the construction of energy-efficient residential complexes in Russia [Primeneniye mirovogo opyta stroitel’stva energoeffektivnykh zhilykh kompleksov v Rossii] // Engineering Bulletin of the Don, 2022, # 5 (89), pp. 549–559.
8. Danilova, P.A. Construction of energy-efficient buildings in areas with negative temperatures [Stroitel’stvo energoeffektivnykh zdaniy v rayonakh s otritsatel’nymi temperaturami] // Trends in the development of science and education, 2024, # 115–16. pp. 72–77.
9. Savin, V.K., Savina, N.V. Architecture and energy efficiency of a window [Arkhitektura i energoeffektivnost’ okna] // Housing construction, 2015, # 10; URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/arhitektura-i-energoeffektivnost-okna (date of access: 08.03.2023).
10. Kudusov, A.S., Kudusova, I.A., Seldugaev, O.B., Burkov, M.A., Abdurakhimova, A.S. Methodology for calculating thermal energy losses in double and triple glazing [Metodika rascheta poter’ teplovoy energii pri dvoynom i troynom osteklenii] // Bulletin of Karaganda University, Series “Physics”, 2018, # 3 (91), pp. 79–83.
11. Russian Federation Laws. Technical regulations on the safety of buildings and structures: Federal Law No. 384-FZ of 30.12.2009.
12. Federal Law No. 261-FZ “On Energy Saving and Improving Energy Efficiency, and on Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation”, Order of December 27, 2015 No. 2446‑r “On the State Program of the Russian Federation “Energy Saving and Improving Energy Efficiency for the Period up to 2025”.
13. Set of Rules: SP 52.13330.2016 Natural and Artificial Lighting / Ministry of Construction and Housing and Communal Services, Moscow, Standartinform, 2016.
14. Set of Rules: SP 367.1325800.2017 Residential and Public Buildings. Design Rules for Natural and Combined Lighting / Ministry of Construction and Housing and Communal Services, Moscow, Standartinform, 2017.
15.Set of Rules: SP 426.1325800.2020 Enclosing Structures for Translucent Buildings and Structures. Design Rules / Ministry of Construction and Housing and Communal Services, Moscow, Standartinform, 2020.
16. Set of Rules: SP 50.13330.2012 Thermal protection of buildings / Ministry of Construction and Housing and Communal Services, Moscow, Standartinform, 2012.
17. Set of Rules: SP 131.13330.2012 Construction climatology / Ministry of Construction and Housing and Communal Services, Moscow, Standartinform, 2015.
18. Set of Rules: SP 23–101–2004 Design of thermal protection of buildings / Ministry of Construction and Housing and Communal Services, Moscow, Standartinform, 2004.
19. Sanitary rules and regulations: SanPiN 1.2.3685–21 Hygienic standards and requirements for ensuring the safety and (or) harmlessness of environmental factors for humans (as amended on December 30, 2022).
20. Standard: GOST 23166–2021 Window and balcony translucent enclosing structures. General specifications / Moscow: Standartinform, 2021.
21. Standard: GOST 24866–2014 Glued double-glazed windows. Specifications / Moscow: Standartinform, 2014.
22. Standard: GOST 31309–2005 Building thermal insulation materials based on mineral fibres / Moscow: MNTKS, 2005.
23. Dvoretsky, A.T., Spiridonov, A.V., Shubin, I.L. Low-energy buildings: windows, facades, sun protection, energy efficiency [Energosberegayushchiye zdaniya: okna, fasady, solntsezashchita, energoeffektivnost’] // Directmedia Publishing, Energy, Moscow: 2022, 232 p.
24. Sultanguzin, I.A., Govorin, A.V., Lukyanov, V.S. Energy-efficient windows are the most important element for achieving zero energy consumption by a house [Energoeffektivnyye okna – vazhneyshiy element dlya dostizheniya nulevogo potrebleniya energii v dome] // Energy saving, 2024, # 8, pp. 22–33.
25. Shevchenko, E.A., Bogatova, T.V. Calculation of the economic efficiency of using energy-efficient stained-glass window designs [Raschet ekonomicheskoy effektivnosti primeneniya energoeffektivnykh vitrazhnykh konstruktsiy] // Engineering systems and structures, 2022, # 2 (48), pp. 53–58.
26. Samarsky, A.E. Energy-efficient glazing of buildings [Energoeffektivnoye ostekleniye zdaniy] // Student, 2022, # 25–3 (195), pp. 5–8.
27. Putilov, S.S. Energy-saving windows as a way to reduce costs [Energosberegayushchiye okna kak sposob snizheniya zatrat] // Current research, 2023, # 19–1(149), pp. 13–15.
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29. Cots, A., Dicorato, S., Giovannini, L., Favoino, F., Manca, M. Energy efficient smart plasma-chromic windows: properties, manufacturing and integration in insulating glazing // Nano Energy, 2021, Vol. 84, p. 105894.
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31. Reffat, R.M., Ahmad, R.M. Determination of optimal energy-efficient integrated daylighting systems into building windows // Solar Energy, 2020, Vol. 209, pр. 258–277.
32. Vakilinezhad, R., Khabir, S. Energy optimization for Façade retrofit design of residential buildings in hot climates using advanced materials // Energy and Buildings, 2024, 317, p. 114417. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild. 2024.114417.
33. Foroughi, R.; Asadi, S.; Khazaeli, S. On the optimization of energy efficient fenestration for small commercial buildings in the United States // Journal of Cleaner Production. 2021, 283, 124604; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro. 2020. 124604.
34. Giyasov, A.I., Anikanova, T.V. Modelling the thermal regime of vertical enclosing structures of buildings [Modelirovaniye teplovogo rezhima vertikal’nykh ograzhdayushchikh konstruktsiy zdaniy] // Bulletin of the South Ural State University. Series: Construction and Architecture, 2024, Vol. 24, # 3, pp. 5–14.
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37. Samarsky, A.E. Energy-efficient glazing of buildings [Energoeffektivnoye ostekleniye zdaniy] // Student, 2022, # 25–3 (195), pp. 5–8.
38. Reffat, R.M., Ahmad, R.M. Determination of optimal energy-efficient integrated daylighting systems into building windows // Solar Energy, 2020, Vol. 209, pp. 258–277.
39. Popova, M.V., Yashkova, T.N. Methods for improving the energy efficiency of buildings [Metody povysheniya energoeffektivnosti zdaniy] / Vladimir, 2014, 111 p.
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The article discusses the issues of solar radiation exposure of vertical enclosing structures. The external enclosing structures receive heat from exposure to solar radiation, which leads to heating of the wall, an increase in temperature in the entire structure and a change in the microclimatic parameters of the room. Modelling the processes of temperature change in the thickness of the enclosing wall structure will allow taking into account the processes of heat transfer when choosing building materials for the construction of buildings.
To study the effect of the amount of solar radiation received by vertical surfaces of buildings on the temperature change inside the enclosing structure, modelling of the thermophysical parameters of the wall using the COMSOL software package was used. Single-layer, double-layer, and three-layer walls of buildings with facade materials with different absorption coefficients of solar radiation were chosen as the objects of research. The simulation was conducted for the summer solstice.
The values of solar radiation received by vertical structures oriented to the south on the day of the summer solstice are considered. The total amount of solar radiation received by the vertical structures of the southern facade, located at 48 °C and 58 °C, on the day of the summer solstice, is almost the same. To estimate the heating of vertical enclosing structures by solar radiation, the formula of A.M. Shklover was used. The modelling was carried out for three types of enclosing structures (one-, two- and three-layer). When modelling heat transfer processes, the colour of facade finishing materials was taken into account, a comparative analysis of heat transfer by enclosing structures with the same absorption coefficients of solar radiation was carried out, as well as an analysis of walls, which facades had different absorption coefficients of solar radiation.
The influence of the amount of solar radiation received by the vertical surfaces of buildings on the temperature change in the thickness of the enclosing wall structure is shown. The results of the study showed that the solar radiation absorption coefficient of the facade material has a greater effect on the temperature change inside the enclosing structures with the lowest thermal inertia. It is established that when the coefficient of absorption of solar radiation by the facade material is 0.3, heat transfer in single-layer and double-layer fencing occurs with almost the same intensity, with an increase in the coefficient of absorption of solar radiation by the facade material to 0.6, the intensity of heat transfer in the two-layer fencing increases.

1. Isanova, A.V., Popova, I.V. Ensuring the required characteristics of the internal microclimate during the design of high-rise residential buildings, taking into account their aeration regime [Obespechenie trebuemy’x xarakteristik vnutrennego mikroklimata pri proektirovanii kvartal’noj mnogoe’tazhnoj zhiloj zastrojki s uchetom ee ae’racionnogo rezhima] // Engineering and Construction Bulletin of the Caspian Sea, 2021, Vol. 1 (35), pp. 25–29.
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1. Hong, L., Wang, C., Zhang, X. Daylight Availability of Living Rooms in Dense Residential Areas under Current Planning Regulations: A Cross-Region Case Study in China // Buildings, 2024, 14 (4), p. 1090; researchgate. net. ‘publication/37857480 ((Accessed: 5 august 2024).
2. Shchepetkov, N.I. On some shortcomings of standards and methods for calculating insolation and natural lighting [Shchepetkov N.I. O nekotoryh nedostatkah norm i metodik rascheta insolyacii i estestvennogo osveshcheniya] // Svetotekhnika, 2006, # 1, pp. 55–56.
3. Slukin, V.M., Smirnov, L.N Providing standardized conditions for natural lighting of residential buildings in dense urban development [Obespechenie normirovannyh uslovij estestvennogo osveshcheniya zhilyh zdanij v uplotnennoj gorodskoj zastrojke] // Academic Bulletin of the UralNIIproekt RAASN, 2011. # 4, pp. 75–77.
4. Serebryakova, M.V. Foreign experience in designing buildings taking into account the requirements of insolation and sun protection [Zarubezhnyj opyt proektirovaniya zdanij s uchetom trebovanij insolyacii i solncezashchity // Bulletin of BSTU named after V.G. Shukhov, 2019, Vol. 4, # 9, pp. 63–71.
5. Adigamova, Z. S., Shagaleeva, D.R. Natural lighting of premises in densely populated areas of the city [Estestvennoe osveshchenie pomeshchenij v uplotnyonnoj zastrojke goroda] // Shag v nauku, 2019, # 4, pp. 10–13.
6. Stetsky, S.V., Larionova, K.O. Calculation of natural illumination of premises with a system of overhead natural lighting taking into account the lighting influence of surrounding buildings [Raschet estestvennoj osveshchennosti pomeshchenij s sistemoj verhnego estestvennogo osveshcheniya s uchetom vliyaniya osveshcheniya okruzhayushchej zastrojki] // Vestnik MGSU, 2014, # 12, pp 20–30.
7. Shmarov, I. A., Zemtsov, V.V. Methodology for calculating natural lighting taking into account specular reflection from translucent facades of opposing buildings [Metodika raschyota estestvennogo osveshcheniya s uchyotom zerkal’nogo otrazheniya ot svetoprozrachnyh fasadov protivostoyashchih zdanij] // Privolzhsky Scientific Journal, 2024, # 3, pp. 76–80.
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The proposed work is devoted to the study and analysis of the influence of roller shutter systems on the thermophysical characteristics of the fillings of light openings of buildings and structures. Since a significant part of the territory of the Russian Federation is characterized by periods of the year accompanied by a decrease in ambient temperature (the cold season), energy conservation issues are of particular importance and are most relevant in the context of current economic conditions. One of the characteristic features of the cold season is the shortening of the daylight period. This time can be effectively used to reduce heat losses through the light openings of buildings and structures and increase the energy efficiency of external enclosing structures in general, through the use of roller shutter systems. In the presented work, a study of the thermophysical characteristics of fragments of various types of enclosing structures for a given construction area, containing a light opening, in the filling of which a roller shutter system is provided. The study was carried out using methods of analysing regulatory and technical documentation, scientific publications of Russian and foreign scientists, and the method of computer modelling of thermal fields based on the finite element method, which resulted in obtaining heat loss values through the studied fragments of enclosing structures and temperature distribution over the entire thickness of the filling of the light opening. The results obtained confirmed the effectiveness of using roller shutter systems as part of filling light openings in order to increase the energy efficiency of external enclosing structures, reduce heat losses through filling light openings and increase their thermal protection qualities.

1. Set of Rules: SP 52.13330.2016 Daylighting and artificial lighting [SP 52.13330.2016 Estestvennoe i iskusstvennoe osveshchenie]: code of rules: official publication: approved and put into effect by Order of the Ministry of Construction of the Russian Federation on November 7, 2016, No. 777/pr: date of introduction 2017–05–08 / NIISF RAASN, Moscow, Standartinform, 2018.
2. Set of Rules: SP 50.13330.2024. Thermal performance of the buildings [SP 50.13330.2024 Teplovaya zashchita zdanij]: code of rules: official publication: approved and put into effect by Order of the Ministry of Construction of the Russian Federation dated May 15, 2024 No. 327/pr: date of introduction 2024–06–16 / NIISF RAASN, Moscow, Ministry of Regional Development of Russia, 2024.
3. Set of Rules: SP 345.1325800.2017. Residential and public buildings. Thermal performance design: official publication [SP 345.1325800.2017 Zdaniya zhilye i obshchestvennye. Pravila proektirovaniya teplovoj zashchity]: approved and put into effect by Order No. 1539/pr of the Ministry of Construction and Housing and Communal Services of the Russian Federation dated November 11, 2017: introduced for the first time: date of introduction 2018–05–15 / NIISF RAASN, Moscow, Ministry of Construction of Russia, 2018.
4. Set of Rules: SP 23–101–2004. Thermal performance design of buildings [SP 23–101–2004 Proektirovanie teplovoj zashchity zdanij]: official publication: approved and put into effect on June 1, 2004 by joint order of JSC Tsniipromzdaniy and FsuE TSNS No. 01 dated April 23, 2004 / NIISF RAASN, JSC Tsniipromzdaniy, FsuE TSNS, TSNIIEP-housing and a group of specialists, Moscow, Ministry of Regional Development of Russia, 2004.
5. Krutilin, A.B. The influence of structural solutions of junctions of window blocks with external walls on their level of thermal protection [Vliyanie konstruktivnyh reshenij uzlov sopryazhenij okonnyh blokov s naruzhnymistenami na ih uroven’ teplozashchity] // Roofing and insulating materials, 2016, # 1, pp. 28–32.
6. Kornienko, S.V. The influence of the placement of the window block on the wall thickness on heat loss [Vliyanie razmeshcheniya okonnogo bloka po tolshchine steny na teplopoteri] / S.V. Kornienko, D.F. Glukhoverya // Construction of unique buildings and structures, 2018, # 4(67), pp. 62–71.
7. Samarin, O.D. Temperature in linear elements of enclosing structures // Journal of Civil Engineering, 2017, # 2(70), pp. 3–10.
8. Nakorchevskii, A.I. On the minimization of heat losses through the exterior wall of a building with a window opening // Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics, 2015, Vol. 88, # 3, pp. 706–715.
9. Zimin, A.N., Bochkov, I.V., Kryshov, S.I., Umnyakova, N.P. Resistance to heat transfer and temperature on the inner surfaces of translucent enclosing structures of residential buildings in Moscow [Soprotivlenie teploperedache i temperatura na vnutrennih poverhnostyah svetoprozrachnyh ograzhdayushchih konstrukcij zhilyh zdanij g. Moskvy] // Housing construction, 2019, # 6, pp. 24–29. DOI 10.31659/0044–4472–2019–6–24–29.
10. Fedyaev, A.A., Chubinsky, A. N., Batireva, I. M., et al. Heat loss through the wooden elements of windows // IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science: 6, Politics, Industry, Science, Education, St. Petersburg, 26–28 May, 2021, p. 012027. DOI 10.1088/1755–1315/876/1/012027.
11. Petrov, E. Korobkov, S., Kuznetsov, S. Simulation of Heat Transfer Through External Enclosing Structures of Buildings // International Scientific Siberian Transport Forum TransSiberia, 2021. Volume 2, Novosibirsk, May 11–14, 2021, Novosibirsk: Springer Nature, 2022, pp. 367–375. DOI 10.1007/978–3–030–96383–5_41.
12. Rimshin, V., Khamrakulov, R., Alikabulov, Sh., et al. Study on the possibilities of increasing the effectiveness of thermal insulation of enclosing structures in window openings using low-emission coatings and films // E3S Web of Conferences, 2024, Vol. 563, p. 02024. DOI 10.1051/e3sconf/202456302024.
13. Adamus, Ja., Pomada, M. Analysis of the Influence of External Wall Material Type on the Thermal Bridge at the Window-to-Wall Interface // Materials, 2023, Vol. 16, # 19, p. 6585. DOI 10.3390/ma16196585.

Part 1 provides general information on some physical properties of water, ice and snow to understand the non-stationary processes of freezing and thawing of enclosing structures of wet foundation soils.
Parts 2 and 3 provide a physical and mathematical formulation of the problem of freezing of wet soil, the Lame and Clapeyron solution, the Stefan solution, and a physical and mathematical formulation of the problem of freezing of a strip foundation. The description of the freezing process of a single-layer enclosing structure, taking into account the phase transformations of moisture in the material of the structure according to V.N. Bogoslovsky, and the freezing process of an unlimited plate, taking into account the phase transformations of moisture in the material of the structure according to A.V. Lykov, are considered. Solutions to boundary value problems for frozen and thawed zones in the region of large and small Fourier numbers are given. Prospects for applying the proposed mathematical models to describe the freezing processes of both enclosing structures and foundation soils are outlined. Section 4 presents examples and calculation results, as well as an analysis of the freezing process of the most common soil bases: loams, sandy loams and sands. It is concluded that if various real weather conditions are modelled, then in non-stationary processes the temperature fields have a complex form, there are closed and open isotherms, reminiscent of contours in a cartographic survey. However, the developed calculation methods presented in sections 1, 2, 3 allow modelling such situations and obtaining the temperature distribution at any time of interest.

1. Ibragimov, A., Gnedina, L., Gerasimova, S. Freezing and thawing of enclosing structures and foundation soils taking into account the effects of solar energy: Part 1. Theoretical foundations of freezing wet soils// Light & Engineering, 2024, Vol. 32, # 1, pp. 70–79, https://doi.org/10.33383/2023–069.
2. Ibragimov, A., Gnedina, L., Gerasimova, S. Freezing and thawing of enclosing structures and foundation soils taking into account the effects of solar energy: Part 2. Problem statement // Light & Engineering, 2024, Vol. 32, # 1, pp. 80–91, https://doi.org/10.33383/2023–070.
3. Lykov, A.V. Theory of thermal conductivity [Teoriya teploprovodnosti] / Moscow: Higher School, 1967.
4. Lykov, A.V., Mikhailov, Yu.A. Theory of heat and mass transfer [Teoriya teplo- i massoperenosa] / М.-L.: Gosenergoiz-dat, 1963.
5. Fedosov, S.V., Gnedina, L. Yu. Non-stationary heat transfer in a multilayer enclosing structure [Nestacionarnyj teploperenos v mnogoslojnoj ograzhdayushchej konstrukcii] / In the book Problems of building thermal physics of microclimate and energy saving systems in buildings: Collection of reports of the fourth scientific and practical conference, April 27–29, 1999. Moscow: NIISF, pp. 343–348.
6. SP 22.13330.2016 Soil bases of buildings and structures (2017) / Standartinform, Moscow.
7. SP 25.13330.2020 (2021) Soil bases and foundations on permafrost soils / Standartinform, Moscow.

Part 1 provides general information on some physical properties of water, ice and snow, necessary for understanding the considered non-stationary processes of freezing and thawing of enclosing structures of wet foundation soils. Part 2 provides a physical and mathematical formulation of the problem of freezing of wet soil, the Lame and Clapeyron solution, the Stefan solution, a physical and mathematical formulation of the problem of freezing of a strip foundation. The following are considered: a description of the freezing process of a single-layer enclosing structure, taking into account the phase transformations of moisture in the material of the structure according to V.N. Bogoslovsky and the freezing process of an unlimited plate, taking into account the phase transformations of moisture in the material of the structure according to A.V. Lykov, mathematical model of the non-stationary process of heat transfer in wet layered media. Based on the method of small-time intervals, solutions of boundary value problems for the frozen and thawed zone in the region of large and small Fourier numbers are given. The prospects for using the proposed mathematical models to describe freezing processes of enclosing structurs and foundation soils are outlined. Part 3 presents a physical picture of the process of freezing of a wet (thawing of a frozen) foundation consisting of different soil layers under different boundary conditions on the surface, as well as a mathematical model describing this process. Part 3 is a continuation of Part 2.

1. Ibragimov, A., Gnedina, L., Gerasimova, S. Freezing and thawing of enclosing structures and foundation soils taking into account the effects of solar energy: Part 1. Theoretical foundations of freezing wet soils // Light & Engineering, 2024, Vol. 32, # 1, pp. 70–79, https://doi.org/10.33383/2023–069.
2. Ibragimov, A., Gnedina, L., Gerasimova, S. Freezing and thawing of enclosing structures and foundation soils taking into account the effects of solar energy: Part 2. Problem statement // Light & Engineering, 2024, Vol. 32, # 1, pp. 80–91, https://doi.org/10.33383/2023–070.
3. Fedosov, S.V., Gnedina, L. Yu. Non-stationary heat transfer in a multilayer enclosing structure [Nestacionarnyj teploperenos v mnogoslojnoj ograzhdayushchej konstrukcii] // In the book Problems of building thermal physics of microclimate and energy saving systems in buildings: Collection of reports of the fourth scientific and practical conference, April 27–29, 1999, Moscow: NIISF, pp. 343–348.
4. Rebinder, P.A. Physicochemical Mechanics, Series IV # 39140 [Fiziko-himicheskaya mekhanika, seriya IV № 39140] // Moscow: Znanie, 1958.
5. Lykov, A.V. Theory of thermal conductivity [Teoriya teploprovodnosti] / Moscow: Higher School, 1967.
6. Leibenzon, L.S. Guide to oilfield mechanics [Rukovodstvo po neftepromyslovoj mekhanike] / M. -L.: ONTI NKTP USSR, 1934.
7. Leibenzon, L.S. On the dynamic temperature condition of the formation of folds on the surface of the globe and during cooling [O dinamicheskom temperaturnom uslovii obrazovaniya skladchatosti na poverhnosti zemnogo shara i pri ohlazhdenii] // Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, REL., series geo-gr. and geo-phys, 1939, # 6, 625 p.
8. Lukyanov, V.S., Golovko, M.D. Calculation of soil freezing [Raschet promerzaniya gruntov] / Moscow: Transzheldorizdat, 1957.
9. Porkhaev, G.V. Thermal interaction of buildings and structures with permafrost soils [Teplovoe vzaimodejstvie zdanij i sooruzhenij s vechnomerzlymi gruntami] / Moscow: Nauka, 1970.
10. SP 25.13330.2020 (2021) Soil bases and foundations on permafrost soils / Standartinform, Moscow, 2021.
11. Tsytovich, N.A. A new principle of mechanics of frozen soils [Novyj princip mekhaniki merzlyh gruntov] // USSR Academy of Sciences Permafrost, 1946, V1, # 1.
12. Tsytovich, N.A. Mechanics of frozen soils. Textbook [Mekhanika merzlyh gruntov. Uchebnoe posobie] / Moscow: Higher school, 1973.
13. SP 50.13330.2012 (2013) Thermal performance of the buildings. Minregion Rossii / Moscow, 2013.
14. Bogoslovsky, V.N. Construction thermophysics. (Thermophysical fundamentals of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) [Stroitel’naya teplofizika. (Teplofizicheskie osnovy otopleniya, ventilyacii i kondicionirovaniya vozduha)] / Мoscow: Higher school, 1982.
15. Tsytovich, N.A. Construction in permafrost conditions. Abstracts of reports at the conference of the SOPS of the USSR Academy of Sciences [Stroitel’stvo v usloviyah vechnoj merzloty. Tezisy dokladov na konferencii SOPS AN SSSR] / Moscow: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1941.
16. Lykov, A.V., Mikhailov, Yu.A. Theory of heat and mass transfer [Teoriya teplo- i massoperenosa] / М.-Л.: Gosenergoizdat, 1963.
17. Tsytovich, N.A. Mechanics of frozen soils [Mekhanika merzlyh gruntov] / Moscow: Higher School, 1973.
18. Gagarin, V.G. Theory of the state and transfer of moisture in building materials and heat-protective properties of building enclosing structures [Teoriya sostoyaniya i perenosa vlagi v stroitel’nyh materialah i teplozashchitnye svojstva ograzhdayushchih konstrukcij zdanij] / Dis. doct. Technical sciences, Moscow: NIISF, 2000.
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20. Fedosov, S.V. Processes of heat treatment of dispersed materials with phase and chemical transformations [Processy termicheskoj obrabotki dispersnyh materialov s fazovymi i himicheskimi prevrashcheniyami] / Dis. doct. Technical Sciences, Leningrad Institute of Technology named after Lensoveta, 1987.
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The work is devoted to the development of an approach to a comprehensive assessment of the general natural lighting of rooms, focused not only on meeting regulatory requirements, but also on the subjective perception of the light environment by the user. It is proposed to consider the room as an active element in the formation of a light pattern, while taking into account not only the characteristics included in the calculation of the coefficient of daylight illumination (D), but also additional parameters that are traditionally not included in this indicator. The purpose of the study is to formulate the principles of a method for assessing total natural lighting based on a combination of known lighting quantities and qualia-metrical analysis. The paper uses methods for calculating and measuring daylight factor D, conducted in field studies in two classrooms with different types of daylighting using verified luxmeters. Additionally, a simulation of the light environment was performed in the Relux software environment. The method of qualia-metric analysis is proposed as a promising tool for comprehensive assessment. D values were determined for the studied rooms, a tree of properties was constructed within the framework of qualia-metric analysis, and the main groups of criteria influencing the perception of general daylighting were identified. The conducted research has shown that the application of the qualia-metric approach in combination with the D indicator provides a more comprehensive and sensitive assessment of the quality of daylighting. The proposed method can be used at the conceptual design stage to select optimal spatial planning solutions and predict user satisfaction with the light environment.

The work is devoted to the development of an approach to a comprehensive assessment of the general natural lighting of rooms, focused not only on meeting regulatory requirements, but also on the subjective perception of the light environment by the user. It is proposed to consider the room as an active element in the formation of a light pattern, while taking into account not only the characteristics included in the calculation of the coefficient of daylight illumination (D), but also additional parameters that are traditionally not included in this indicator. The purpose of the study is to formulate the principles of a method for assessing total natural lighting based on a combination of known lighting quantities and qualia-metrical analysis. The paper uses methods for calculating and measuring daylight factor D, conducted in field studies in two classrooms with different types of daylighting using verified luxmeters. Additionally, a simulation of the light environment was performed in the Relux software environment. The method of qualia-metric analysis is proposed as a promising tool for comprehensive assessment. D values were determined for the studied rooms, a tree of properties was constructed within the framework of qualia-metric analysis, and the main groups of criteria influencing the perception of general daylighting were identified. The conducted research has shown that the application of the qualia-metric approach in combination with the D indicator provides a more comprehensive and sensitive assessment of the quality of daylighting. The proposed method can be used at the conceptual design stage to select optimal spatial planning solutions and predict user satisfaction with the light environment.

This research focuses on the design features of daylight in buildings using CLT (cross-laminated timber) panels. As a rule, when factory-finished, the inner surface of the CLT panel has a natural wood colour. The colour palette of structural wood is rich in various textures and shades, which greatly complicates the process of determining the interior surface reflectance of these materials. A minimum of three colours can be present on one square meter of the CLT panel surface. This means that the reflection coefficient of the CLT panel surface will be determined as reduced to a single indicator. To improve the accuracy of calculations of daylight, the authors suggest clarifying the values of interior surface reflectance for wood materials and fixing them in regulatory documents. This requires additional research using a set of numerical and laboratory studies to refine the calculation methodology for this indicator. It is assumed that the developed recommendations for calculating the daylight of rooms in buildings using CLT panels will contribute to improving the energy efficiency of buildings, thanks to the rational selection of lighting devices and the calculation of the required illumination level. The implementation of the recommendations will create the prerequisites for the further development of wooden house construction in Russia and the world.

1. Aloisio, A., Pasca, D. P., Kurent, B., & Tomasi, R. Long-term continuous dynamic monitoring of an eight-story CLT building // Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 2024, Vol. 224, 112094, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YMSSP.2024.112094.
2. Lukin, M.V., Roshchina, S.I., Lukina, A.V., Rimshin, V.I. Computer modeling of energy-efficient joints of wood composite panels // International Journal for Computational Civil and Structural Engineering, 2024, Vol. 20(1), pp. 68–80. Doi:10.22337/2587–9618–2024–20–1–68–80.
3. Lepage, R. T.M. Moisture Response of Wall Assemblies of Cross-Laminated Timber Construction in Cold Canadian Climates // University of Waterloo, 2012, http://hdl.handle.net/10012/6569.
4. Stafeev, S. K., Sharov, D.D. Human colour perception mechanisms: a review of natural science concepts and artistic models from ancient chromatism to neuro-iconic and holography; part 1: historical retrospective of hypotheses and experiments // Light and Engineering, 2025, Vol. 33, # 2, pp. 4–17. Doi: 10.33383/2024–055.
5. Castilla, N., Higuera-Trujillo, J. L., & Llinares, C. Virtual reality-based study assessing the impact of lighting on attention in university classrooms // Journal of Building Engineering, 2024, Vol. 86, 108902. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JOBE.2024.108902.
6. Li, J., Hao, L., Huang, Y., Wang, T., Shao, R. A study of healthy lighting for learning performance and visual fatigue in school-aged children with reading and writing tasks // Light and Engineering, 2025, Vol. 33, # 1, pp. 6–14. Doi: 10.33383/2024–077.
7. Kraus, M. Colour as a Psychological Agent to Perceived Indoor Environmental Quality // IOP Conference Series Materials Science and Engineering, 2019, Vol. 603(5), 052097.
8. Heidari, B., Abravesh, M., & Khodabakhshian, M. Human-centric lighting in office spaces: Daylight strategies and environmental influences on visual effects and circadian health // Building and Environment, 2025, Vol. 285, 113538, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BUILDENV.2025.113538.
9. Makaremi, N., Schiavoni, S., Pisello, A. L., Asdrubali, F., & Cotana, F. Quantifying the effects of interior surface reflectance on indoor lighting // Energy Procedia, 2017, Vol. 134, pp. 306–316, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYPRO.2017.09.531.
10. Liu, W., Li, L., Luo, Z., Liu, D., Wang, X. Research progress on photodiscolouration mechanism and functional regulation in wood // Progress in Organic Coatings, 2025, Vol. 208, 109532. Doi: 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2025.109532.
11. Gupta, B.S., Jelle, B.P., Hovde, P.J., Gao, T. Wood coating failures against natural and accelerated climates // Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers Construction Materials, 2015, Vol. 168(1), pp. 3–15. Doi.10.1680/coma.13.00022.

The article is devoted to the description of a natural experiment to assess the comfort of the internal microclimate in the premises of a residential building using the method of subjective expert assessment in the conditions of the hot and sunny climate of Syria.
The current popularity of the subjective assessment method is noted, since it is a real test of the conclusions that are given in the process of objective experimental studies.
The article describes the preparatory stage of the experiment, the process of selecting observations, forming a questionnaire, the results obtained and the conclusions made. The assessment scale used by observers is also noted. The history of the development and improvement of the method of subjective expert assessment is analysed and variant methods of its application are described. Based on the results of the experiment, a number of conclusions are made, which are used by the authors along with the conclusions obtained during the objective stage of the experiment on a real object.
The main conclusion is made about the relevance of the subjective expert method of research, as a result of which various aspects are revealed that were not taken into account in the course of the objective experiment conducted earlier. The subjective stage covered a larger range of issues related to the comfort of the internal microclimate. In particular, in addition to the quality of the light environment, the issues of insolation and sun protection and the psychological connection of observers with the external environment through window openings were also considered. Further, in the following studies it is planned to identify, by means of a comparative analysis, the correspondence of the conclusions obtained as a result of two full-scale experiments (objective and subjective) to each other and to make new, final conclusions. So far, it can only be stated that the subjective expert assessment reveals many new nuances that are not taken into account in the full-scale objective experiment, which should be specified in new studies continuing the ones considered.

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